What Moves the Needle

526 graded uses across supplements, protocols, devices and longevity drugs. A record graded for several uses appears once for each. Each row opens its record and its trials.

On deaths and disease events, each row also gives the absolute size: out of 1,000 people (or 1,000 person-years), how many had the event in the comparison group and how many with the treatment, as the trial's abstract states it, with the outcome, the people, the comparison and the time it belongs to. Within each letter, rows are listed by name.

Each figure answers a different question, about a different outcome, group of people, comparison and length of time. The numbers cannot be compared with each other.

Measured on deaths and disease events

Heart attacks, strokes, fractures, cancers, deaths, infections: things that happen to people and are counted. A 17 · B 14 · C 30.

• A
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Blood pressure lowering: treating high blood pressure and intensive targets

  Intensive systolic target (under 120 to 130 mm Hg) against a standard target: major cardiovascular events · Protocol

  5.4 fewer per 1,000 person-years, over a median 3.26 years. Outcome: major cardiovascular events (counted once: the first heart attack, other acute coronary syndrome, stroke, heart failure or cardiovascular death). In: 9,361 adults with systolic pressure of 130 or higher and raised cardiovascular risk, without diabetes (SPRINT). Compared: systolic target under 120 against under 140 mm Hg. 21.9 in the comparison group against 16.5 with the treatment. PMID PubMed ID: the permanent number the US National Library of Medicine gives a published paper. Each one links to that paper's record on PubMed. 26551272.
• A
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Blood pressure lowering: treating high blood pressure and intensive targets

  Lowering blood pressure in people with high blood pressure, against placebo An inactive substitute made to look like the real treatment, so participants cannot tell which one they received. or less treatment: major cardiovascular events and death · Protocol

  6 fewer per 1,000 person-years, over a median 4.15 years. Outcome: major cardiovascular events (counted once: the first stroke, heart attack or ischemic heart disease, or heart failure causing death or a hospital stay). In: 186,988 people without previous cardiovascular disease, 48 trials. Compared: blood-pressure-lowering drugs against placebo, other drugs or less intensive treatment. 31.9 in the comparison group against 25.9 with the treatment. In people with previous cardiovascular disease the same review gives 39.7 against 36.0 per 1,000 person-years. PMID 33933205.
• A
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT)

  Recurrent C. difficile infection, adults · Protocol

  333 more per 1,000 people, per treatment course. Outcome: recurrent C. difficile infection resolved. In: 320 adults with recurrent C. difficile infection, 6 trials. Compared: donor stool transplant against placebo, own-stool transplant, no treatment or antibiotics (mostly vancomycin). How it was obtained: computed from the number needed to treat the abstract states, 3. PMID 37096495.
• A
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Lipids: lowering LDL cholesterol, and the contrast with raising HDL or lowering triglycerides

  Heart attack, stroke and cardiovascular death, lowering LDL Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, the cholesterol fraction most closely tied to plaque in the arteries. cholesterol in people without vascular disease who are at raised risk · Protocol

  25 fewer per 1,000 people, over about 5 years. Outcome: major vascular events (counted once: the first heart attack or coronary death, coronary revascularization or stroke). In: people without coronary heart disease, in 14 statin trials of 90,056 people. Compared: statin against control, scaled to 1 mmol/L lower LDL cholesterol. How it was obtained: stated in the abstract: 25 fewer per 1,000 among those with no such history. PMID 16214597.
• A
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Lipids: lowering LDL cholesterol, and the contrast with raising HDL or lowering triglycerides

  Heart attack, stroke and death, lowering LDL cholesterol in people with established vascular disease or after an acute coronary syndrome · Protocol

  48 fewer per 1,000 people, over about 5 years. Outcome: major vascular events (counted once: the first heart attack or coronary death, coronary revascularization or stroke). In: people with coronary heart disease, in 14 statin trials of 90,056 people. Compared: statin against control, scaled to 1 mmol/L lower LDL cholesterol. How it was obtained: stated in the abstract: 48 fewer per 1,000 among those with coronary heart disease. PMID 16214597.
• A
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Low-dose CT screening for lung cancer in heavy smokers

  Lung cancer deaths, current and former heavy smokers aged 50 to 74 · Device or therapy

  0.6 fewer per 1,000 person-years, during the trial. Outcome: death from lung cancer. In: 53,454 current and former heavy smokers (NLST). Compared: three yearly low-dose CT scans against three yearly chest X-rays. 3.1 in the comparison group against 2.5 with the treatment. PMID 21714641.
• A
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Mediterranean diet + extra-virgin olive oil

  Major cardiovascular events (PREDIMED) · Protocol

  6 fewer per 1,000 people, over a median 4.8 years. Outcome: major cardiovascular events (counted once: the first heart attack, stroke or cardiovascular death). In: 7,447 adults aged 55 to 80 at high cardiovascular risk, without cardiovascular disease, Spain (PREDIMED). Compared: Mediterranean diet with extra-virgin olive oil against advice to cut dietary fat. 44 in the comparison group against 38 with the treatment. PMID 29897866.
• A
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Pneumatic Compression (sequential)

  Venous thromboembolism prevention · Protocol

  94 fewer per 1,000 people, during the hospital stay. Outcome: deep vein thrombosis. In: 16,164 hospitalized patients, 70 trials. Compared: intermittent pneumatic compression against no compression. 167 in the comparison group against 73 with the treatment. PMID 23852609.
• A
  Hard clinical endpoint

  RSV vaccination (respiratory syncytial virus), for older adults

  RSV lung illness and RSV hospitalization, bivalent RSV prefusion F vaccine, adults aged 60 and older · Protocol

  0.6 fewer per 1,000 person-years, over one winter. Outcome: hospitalization for RSV respiratory disease. In: 131,276 adults aged 60 and older in Denmark (DAN-RSV). Compared: one dose of bivalent RSV prefusion F vaccine against no vaccine. 0.7 in the comparison group against 0.1 with the treatment. PMID 40888695.
• A
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Semaglutide

  Cardiovascular death, heart attack and stroke in people with cardiovascular disease or type 2 diabetes · Longevity drug

  15 fewer per 1,000 people, over a mean 39.8 months. Outcome: major adverse cardiovascular events (counted once: the first cardiovascular death, nonfatal heart attack or nonfatal stroke). In: 17,604 adults aged 45 and over with cardiovascular disease and overweight or obesity, without diabetes (SELECT). Compared: semaglutide 2.4 mg weekly against placebo. 80 in the comparison group against 65 with the treatment. PMID 37952131.
• A
  Hard clinical endpoint

  SGLT2 inhibitors (empagliflozin, dapagliflozin)

  Cardiovascular death, heart-failure hospitalization and kidney-failure progression · Longevity drug

  49 fewer per 1,000 people, over a median 18.2 months. Outcome: worsening heart failure or cardiovascular death (counted once: the first hospital stay or urgent visit for heart failure, or cardiovascular death). In: 4,744 adults with heart failure and an ejection fraction of 40% or less (DAPA-HF). Compared: dapagliflozin 10 mg daily against placebo, both added to standard therapy. 212 in the comparison group against 163 with the treatment. Kidney failure is a separate outcome and is not in this number. PMID 31535829.
• A
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Shingles vaccination (recombinant zoster vaccine), for shingles and dementia

  Shingles (herpes zoster) in adults aged 50 and older · Protocol

  8.8 fewer per 1,000 person-years, over a mean 3.2 years. Outcome: shingles (herpes zoster). In: 15,411 adults aged 50 and over in 18 countries (ZOE-50). Compared: two doses of recombinant zoster vaccine against placebo. 9.1 in the comparison group against 0.3 with the treatment. PMID 25916341.
• A
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Sigmoidoscopy and colonoscopy screening for colorectal cancer

  Colorectal cancer deaths, an invitation to flexible sigmoidoscopy, adults aged 55 to 64 · Device or therapy

  1.3 fewer per 1,000 people, over 15 years. Outcome: death from colorectal cancer. In: 274,952 adults aged 55 to 64, 4 trials. Compared: invitation to sigmoidoscopy screening against usual care. How it was obtained: stated in the abstract: 0.13 fewer deaths per 100 people invited. PMID 36215714.
• A
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Statins (simvastatin, pravastatin, atorvastatin, rosuvastatin)

  Death and major cardiovascular events in people with coronary heart disease or other established vascular disease · Longevity drug

  37 fewer per 1,000 people, over 6 years. Outcome: death from any cause. In: 4,444 adults with coronary heart disease and high cholesterol (4S). Compared: simvastatin against placebo. 124 in the comparison group against 87 with the treatment. PMID 7968073.
• A
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Statins (simvastatin, pravastatin, atorvastatin, rosuvastatin)

  Heart attack, stroke and cardiovascular death in people without cardiovascular disease who are at raised risk · Longevity drug

  5.9 fewer per 1,000 person-years, over a median 1.9 years. Outcome: major cardiovascular events (counted once: the first heart attack, stroke, artery-opening procedure, hospital stay for unstable angina or cardiovascular death). In: 17,802 healthy adults with LDL under 130 mg/dL and raised C-reactive protein (JUPITER). Compared: rosuvastatin 20 mg daily against placebo. 13.6 in the comparison group against 7.7 with the treatment. PMID 18997196.
• A
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Stool-based colorectal screening (gFOBT and FIT)

  Colorectal cancer mortality, guaiac FOBT (gFOBT) · Device or therapy

  Absolute size: not stated in the abstract (PMID 24047060). The abstract gives colorectal-cancer deaths as a share of all deaths, not of the people screened.
• A
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Teeth and gums: periodontal treatment and daily oral hygiene

  Fewer cavities, fluoride toothpaste in children and adolescents · Protocol

  Absolute size: not stated in the abstract (PMID 12535435). The outcome is the number of decayed, missing or filled tooth surfaces per child, a count rather than an event, so it has no rate per 1,000 people.
• B
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Blood pressure lowering: treating high blood pressure and intensive targets

  Dementia or mild cognitive impairment · Protocol

  1.4 fewer per 1,000 person-years, over a median 5.11 years. Outcome: probable dementia. In: 9,361 adults aged 50 and over with high blood pressure, without diabetes or stroke (SPRINT MIND). Compared: systolic target under 120 against under 140 mm Hg. 8.6 in the comparison group against 7.2 with the treatment. Not statistically significant Unlikely to be explained by chance alone at the threshold the study set. It says nothing about whether the difference is large enough to matter. on its own. PMID 30688979.
• B
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10)

  Chronic heart failure events, including hospitalization, as an adjunct A treatment tested on top of standard prescribed therapy rather than in place of it. to standard therapy · Supplement

  110 fewer per 1,000 people, over 2 years. Outcome: major adverse cardiovascular events, the trial's long-term combined endpoint The outcome a trial measures to decide whether the treatment worked, such as heart attacks, blood pressure or a symptom score. (counted once: the first such event). In: 420 adults with moderate to severe chronic heart failure on standard therapy (Q-SYMBIO). Compared: CoQ10 100 mg three times a day against placebo, both added to standard therapy. 260 in the comparison group against 150 with the treatment. PMID 25282031.
• B
  Hard clinical endpoint

  CoQ10 (ubiquinone) 300 mg/day

  Heart-failure events, including hospitalization, in chronic heart failure · Protocol

  110 fewer per 1,000 people, over 2 years. Outcome: major adverse cardiovascular events, the trial's long-term combined endpoint (counted once: the first such event). In: 420 adults with moderate to severe chronic heart failure on standard therapy (Q-SYMBIO). Compared: CoQ10 100 mg three times a day against placebo, both added to standard therapy. 260 in the comparison group against 150 with the treatment. PMID 25282031.
• B
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Folic Acid (supplemental, 1 mg/day)

  First-stroke prevention in hypertensive adults without prior stroke or MI, in populations without grain folate fortification (0.8 mg/day with enalapril) · Supplement

  7 fewer per 1,000 people, over a median 4.5 years. Outcome: first stroke. In: 20,702 adults with high blood pressure and no earlier stroke or heart attack, China (CSPPT). Compared: enalapril with folic acid 0.8 mg against enalapril alone. 34 in the comparison group against 27 with the treatment. PMID 25771069.
• B
  Hard clinical endpoint

  HPV testing for cervical cancer screening

  Invasive cervical cancer, HPV-based against cytology-based screening, women aged 20 to 64 · Device or therapy

  Absolute size: not stated in the abstract (PMID 24192252). The abstract gives a rate ratio for all women; its per-100,000 figures cover only women who tested negative at entry.
• B
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Lipids: lowering LDL cholesterol, and the contrast with raising HDL or lowering triglycerides

  Major cardiovascular events, high-dose icosapent ethyl in statin-treated people with raised triglycerides · Protocol

  48 fewer per 1,000 people, over a median 4.9 years. Outcome: major adverse cardiovascular events (counted once: the first cardiovascular death, heart attack, stroke, coronary revascularization or unstable angina). In: 8,179 adults on a statin with cardiovascular disease, or diabetes and other risk factors, and raised triglycerides (REDUCE-IT). Compared: icosapent ethyl 4 g a day against placebo. 220 in the comparison group against 172 with the treatment. PMID 30415628.
• B
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Mammography screening for breast cancer

  Breast cancer deaths, women aged 50 to 69 · Device or therapy

  0.8 fewer per 1,000 people, over 10 years. Outcome: death from breast cancer. In: women aged 50 to 59, 7 trials. Compared: mammography screening against no screening. At ages 60 to 69 the same review gives 21 fewer per 10,000, which is 2.1 per 1,000. How it was obtained: stated in the abstract: 8 and 21 deaths prevented per 10,000 women at 50 to 59 and 60 to 69. PMID 26756588.
• B
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Omega-3. High-dose EPA (icosapent ethyl, 4 g)

  Major adverse cardiovascular events, high-dose icosapent ethyl · Supplement

  48 fewer per 1,000 people, over a median 4.9 years. Outcome: major adverse cardiovascular events (counted once: the first cardiovascular death, heart attack, stroke, coronary revascularization or unstable angina). In: 8,179 adults on a statin with cardiovascular disease, or diabetes and other risk factors, and raised triglycerides (REDUCE-IT). Compared: icosapent ethyl 4 g a day against placebo. 220 in the comparison group against 172 with the treatment. PMID 30415628.
• B
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Pneumococcal vaccination (pneumonia vaccines), for older adults

  Invasive pneumococcal disease, 23-valent polysaccharide vaccine, adults · Protocol

  Absolute size: not stated in the abstract (PMID 23440780). The abstract gives a pooled odds ratio (0.26) without the number of cases in each group.
• B
  Hard clinical endpoint

  PSA screening for prostate cancer

  Prostate cancer deaths, men aged 55 to 69 · Device or therapy

  1.8 fewer per 1,000 people, at 16 years. Outcome: death from prostate cancer. In: men aged 55 to 69 in eight European countries (ERSPC). Compared: invitation to PSA screening against no invitation. How it was obtained: stated in the abstract: an absolute difference of 0.18 percent at 16 years. PMID 30824296.
• B
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Statins (simvastatin, pravastatin, atorvastatin, rosuvastatin)

  Major cardiovascular events in adults aged 70 and over without cardiovascular disease · Longevity drug

  4.6 fewer per 1,000 person-years, over a median 5.9 years. Outcome: major cardiovascular events (counted once: the first cardiovascular death, nonfatal heart attack or stroke, or coronary revascularization). In: 9,971 adults aged 70 and over without cardiovascular disease, diabetes or dementia, Australia (STAREE). Compared: atorvastatin 40 mg daily against placebo. 15.5 in the comparison group against 10.9 with the treatment. PMID 42670961.
• B
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Structured exercise program after treatment for non-metastatic cancer

  Disease-free survival and overall survival after curative-intent treatment for non-metastatic cancer, structured exercise program against health education or usual care · Protocol

  64 fewer per 1,000 people, at 5 years. Outcome: disease-free survival events (counted once: the first cancer recurrence, new cancer or death). In: 889 adults with resected colon cancer who had finished chemotherapy (CHALLENGE). Compared: a 3-year structured exercise program against health-education materials. 261 in the comparison group against 197 with the treatment. Overall survival is a separate outcome and is not in this number. PMID 40450658.
• B
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Teeth and gums: periodontal treatment and daily oral hygiene

  Fewer cavities, fluoride toothpaste in adults · Protocol

  Absolute size: not stated in the abstract (PMID 30829399). The outcome is the number of decayed, missing or filled tooth surfaces per person, a count rather than an event, so it has no rate per 1,000 people.
• B
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Vitamin D3

  Fracture prevention, vitamin D3 with calcium, older adults living in institutions · Supplement

  9 fewer per 1,000 people, per year. Outcome: hip fracture. In: older adults living in institutions (pooled trials of vitamin D with calcium). Compared: vitamin D with calcium against placebo or no treatment. 54 in the comparison group against 45 with the treatment. How it was obtained: stated in the abstract: nine fewer per 1,000 per year in institutions. PMID 24729336.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Acarbose

  Progression from impaired glucose tolerance to type 2 diabetes · Longevity drug

  100 fewer per 1,000 people, during the trial. Outcome: type 2 diabetes diagnosed. In: 1,368 adults with impaired glucose tolerance (STOP-NIDDM). Compared: acarbose 100 mg three times a day against placebo. 420 in the comparison group against 320 with the treatment. PMID 12086760.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Alcohol reduction

  All-cause mortality in middle-aged men with heavy drinking, screening with an intervention to drink less · Protocol

  Absolute size: not stated in the abstract (PMID 6135365). The abstract gives a relative reduction only (mortality by 50 percent), with no number of deaths in each group.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Alcohol reduction

  Atrial fibrillation recurrence in regular drinkers with AF · Protocol

  200 fewer per 1,000 people, over 6 months. Outcome: atrial fibrillation recurrence. In: 140 adults with atrial fibrillation who drank 10 or more drinks a week, Australia. Compared: stopping alcohol against usual drinking. 730 in the comparison group against 530 with the treatment. PMID 31893513.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Blood pressure lowering: treating high blood pressure and intensive targets

  Treating high blood pressure in adults aged 80 and over · Protocol

  Absolute size: not stated in the abstract (PMID 18378519). The abstract gives reductions as percentages only (death from any cause 21 percent lower), with no rate in each group.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Exercise dose: how much weekly activity, from minutes a week to daily steps

  Heart and circulation events and fractures after a 12-week pedometer walking program, adults aged 45 to 75 · Protocol

  16 fewer per 1,000 people, over 4 years after a 12-week program. Outcome: cardiovascular events (counted once: the first nonfatal or fatal cardiovascular event). In: 1,297 adults aged 45 to 75 in UK general practices, two trials (PACE-UP and PACE-Lift). Compared: a 12-week pedometer walking program against usual care. Fractures are a separate outcome: 36 fewer per 1,000 in the same abstract. How it was obtained: absolute risk The actual chance of an event in a group. A fall from 2 percent to 1 percent is a 1-point absolute reduction, even though it is a 50 percent relative one. reduction stated in the abstract (1.6%, number needed to treat 61); the abstract gives no group rates. PMID 31237875.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  HPV testing for cervical cancer screening

  Cervical cancer deaths, one round of HPV testing against standard care, women aged 30 to 59 in rural India · Device or therapy

  1 fewer per 1,000 people, during the trial. Outcome: death from cervical cancer. In: 131,746 women aged 30 to 59 in rural India, cluster trial. Compared: one round of HPV testing against standard care. 2 in the comparison group against 1 with the treatment. How it was obtained: computed from the deaths and group sizes in the abstract: 34 of 34,126 against 64 of 31,488. PMID 19339719.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Influenza vaccination (yearly flu shot), for older adults

  Laboratory-confirmed influenza, high-dose against standard-dose vaccine, adults aged 65 and older · Protocol

  5 fewer per 1,000 people, over two influenza seasons, intention to treat. Outcome: laboratory-confirmed influenza with a protocol-defined illness. In: 31,989 adults aged 65 and older in the United States and Canada. Compared: high-dose against standard-dose inactivated influenza vaccine. 19 in the comparison group against 14 with the treatment. How it was obtained: group percentages in the abstract (1.9% and 1.4%). PMID 25119609.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Low-dose CT screening for lung cancer in heavy smokers

  Death from any cause, current and former heavy smokers · Device or therapy

  Absolute size: not stated in the abstract (PMID 21714641). The abstract gives the reduction in deaths from any cause as a percentage only (6.7 percent lower), with no death rate in each group.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  NAC (N-Acetyl Cysteine)

  COPD exacerbation rate at 600 mg twice daily in moderate to severe COPD · Supplement

  330 fewer per 1,000 person-years, over 1 year. Outcome: COPD exacerbations (counted as events per person-year). In: 1,006 adults aged 40 to 80 with moderate to severe COPD, China (PANTHEON). Compared: NAC 600 mg twice a day against placebo. 1,490 in the comparison group against 1,160 with the treatment. PMID 24621680.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  NAC (N-Acetyl Cysteine)

  Ovulation and pregnancy in clomiphene-resistant polycystic ovary syndrome, NAC added to clomiphene · Supplement

  213 more per 1,000 people, per treatment course. Outcome: pregnancy. In: 150 women aged 18 to 39 with clomiphene-resistant polycystic ovary syndrome. Compared: NAC 1.2 g a day with clomiphene against placebo with clomiphene. 0 in the comparison group against 213 with the treatment. PMID 15705376.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Omega-3 EPA/DHA 2 to 4 g/day (general supplementation)

  Cardiovascular events, including coronary death · Protocol

  Absolute size: not stated in the abstract (PMID 31567003). The pooled analysis gives rate ratios only, with no event rate in each group.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Omega-3. High-dose EPA (icosapent ethyl, 4 g)

  Secondary prevention after myocardial infarction · Supplement

  Absolute size: not stated in the abstract (PMID 10465168). The abstract gives relative reductions only (death 14 percent lower), with no event rate in each group.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Pneumococcal vaccination (pneumonia vaccines), for older adults

  Pneumonia from the vaccine's strains, 13-valent conjugate vaccine, adults aged 65 and older · Protocol

  Absolute size: not stated in the abstract (PMID 25785969). The abstract gives the number of cases in each group (49 and 90) but not the per-protocol group sizes, so a rate per 1,000 cannot be computed from it.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Probiotics

  Prevention of antibiotic-associated C. difficile diarrhea (people taking antibiotics who are not immunocompromised) · Supplement

  16 fewer per 1,000 people, during a course of antibiotics. Outcome: C. difficile-associated diarrhea. In: 13,179 adults and children taking antibiotics, 38 trials. Compared: probiotics against placebo, no treatment or other prevention. 32 in the comparison group against 16 with the treatment. PMID 40931979.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Quitting smoking: programs and medicines

  Death from any cause, a quit-smoking program, middle-aged smokers · Protocol

  1.6 fewer per 1,000 person-years, over up to 14.5 years. Outcome: death from any cause. In: 5,887 middle-aged smokers with mild airway obstruction (Lung Health Study). Compared: a 10-week quit-smoking program against usual care. 10.4 in the comparison group against 8.8 with the treatment. PMID 15710956.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Red Yeast Rice (Monacolin K)

  Secondary prevention after myocardial infarction · Supplement

  47 fewer per 1,000 people, over an average 4.5 years. Outcome: major coronary events (counted once: the first nonfatal heart attack or death from coronary heart disease). In: nearly 5,000 Chinese adults after a heart attack (CCSPS). Compared: Xuezhikang, a red yeast rice extract, against placebo. 104 in the comparison group against 57 with the treatment. PMID 18549841.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  RSV vaccination (respiratory syncytial virus), for older adults

  RSV lung illness, adjuvanted RSVPreF3 vaccine, adults aged 60 and older · Protocol

  4.8 fewer per 1,000 person-years, over a median 6.7 months. Outcome: RT-PCR-confirmed RSV lower respiratory tract disease. In: 24,966 adults aged 60 and older. Compared: adjuvanted RSVPreF3 vaccine against placebo. 5.8 in the comparison group against 1 with the treatment. PMID 36791160.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  RSV vaccination (respiratory syncytial virus), for older adults

  RSV lung illness, mRNA-1345 vaccine, adults aged 60 and older · Protocol

  Absolute size: not stated in the abstract (PMID 38091530). The abstract gives vaccine efficacy (83.7%) and group sizes but not the number of cases in each group.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Seed oils: linoleic-acid vegetable oils in place of saturated fat

  Coronary and cardiovascular events when linoleic-acid oils replace saturated fat · Protocol

  Absolute size: not stated in the abstract (PMID 20351774). The pooled analysis gives a relative risk The risk in one group expressed as a share of the risk in another. It can make a small absolute difference look large. only (19 percent lower), with no event rate in each group.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Sigmoidoscopy and colonoscopy screening for colorectal cancer

  Colorectal cancer diagnoses, an invitation to screening colonoscopy, adults aged 55 to 64 · Device or therapy

  2.2 fewer per 1,000 people, at 10 years. Outcome: colorectal cancer diagnosed. In: 84,585 adults aged 55 to 64 in Poland, Norway and Sweden (NordICC). Compared: invitation to one screening colonoscopy against no invitation. 12 in the comparison group against 9.8 with the treatment. PMID 36214590.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Social connection programs for loneliness in older adults

  Mortality in lonely older adults, psychosocial group rehabilitation · Protocol

  70 fewer per 1,000 people, over 2 years. Outcome: death from any cause. In: 235 lonely adults over 74 at seven day-care centers. Compared: 12 psychosocial group sessions over 3 months against a control group without them. 100 in the comparison group against 30 with the treatment. PMID 19223606.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Stool-based colorectal screening (gFOBT and FIT)

  Colorectal cancer mortality versus colonoscopy · Device or therapy

  0.2 more per 1,000 people, over 10 years. Outcome: death from colorectal cancer. In: adults aged 50 to 69 at average risk, Spain (COLONPREV). Compared: invitation to a stool test (FIT) every 2 years against invitation to one colonoscopy. 2.2 in the comparison group against 2.4 with the treatment. PMID 40158525.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Sun and skin: daily sunscreen, sun protection and oral nicotinamide

  Melanoma, daily sunscreen · Protocol

  Absolute size: not stated in the abstract (PMID 21135266). The abstract gives the number of melanomas in each group (11 against 22) but not the size of each group.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Sun and skin: daily sunscreen, sun protection and oral nicotinamide

  Oral nicotinamide, new keratinocyte skin cancers in people with prior skin cancer (not immunosuppressed) · Protocol

  Absolute size: not stated in the abstract (PMID 26488693). The abstract gives the reduction as a percentage only (23 percent fewer new cancers), with no rate in each group.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Sun and skin: daily sunscreen, sun protection and oral nicotinamide

  Squamous cell carcinoma of the skin, daily sunscreen · Protocol

  Absolute size: not stated in the abstract (PMID 10475183). The abstract's per-100,000 figures count tumors, not people, and the number of people with a first new squamous cell cancer did not differ significantly.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Teeth and gums: periodontal treatment and daily oral hygiene

  Pneumonia in nursing home residents, professional oral care · Protocol

  Absolute size: not stated in the abstract (PMID 11943036). The abstract reports that pneumonia decreased but gives no number of cases in either group.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Tirzepatide

  Onset of type 2 diabetes in obesity with prediabetes · Longevity drug

  120 fewer per 1,000 people, over 176 weeks. Outcome: onset of type 2 diabetes. In: 1,032 adults with obesity and prediabetes (SURMOUNT-1). Compared: tirzepatide 5 to 15 mg weekly against placebo. 133 in the comparison group against 13 with the treatment. PMID 39536238.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Transcendental Meditation (TM) · secondary CVD prevention

  Death, heart attack and stroke in coronary heart disease · Protocol

  Absolute size: not stated in the abstract (PMID 23149426). The abstract gives a hazard ratio How often an event happened in the treated group compared with the control group over the same period. A ratio of 0.80 means 20 percent fewer events. only (48 percent lower), with no event rate in each group.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Turkey Tail (Trametes versicolor / PSK)

  Overall survival after curative resection of colorectal or gastric cancer, PSK added to chemotherapy · Supplement

  Absolute size: not stated in the abstract (PMID 16133112). The abstract gives a survival risk ratio only, with no death rate in each group.
• C
  Hard clinical endpoint

  Vitamin D3

  Prevention of acute respiratory tract infection (esp. in vitamin D-deficient people) · Supplement

  Absolute size: not stated in the abstract (PMID 28202713). The abstract gives odds ratios only, with no infection rate in each group.

Measured on function

Strength, walking, balance, wakefulness: what a person can do, measured with an instrument. A 12 · B 10 · C 58.

• A
  Measured function

  Adequate dietary protein (1.2 to 1.6 g/kg/day)

  Strength gains (one-repetition maximum) during resistance training, healthy adults · Protocol
• A
  Measured function

  Aerobic exercise (Zone 2) 150 min/week

  Measured VO2max The most oxygen the body can use during all-out exercise, a standard measure of aerobic fitness. after low-to-moderate intensity aerobic training, against no exercise · Protocol
• A
  Measured function

  CPAP for obstructive sleep apnea

  Daytime sleepiness measured by the maintenance of wakefulness test, in moderate to severe sleep apnea with daytime sleepiness · Device or therapy
• A
  Measured function

  Creatine Monohydrate

  Muscle strength with resistance training in older adults · Supplement
• A
  Measured function

  Daytime napping (length and timing)

  Alertness and cognitive performance in the hours after an afternoon nap, healthy adults · Protocol
• A
  Measured function

  Daytime napping (length and timing)

  Cognitive performance during a night shift after an on-shift nap · Protocol
• A
  Measured function

  Daytime napping (length and timing)

  Memory retention after an afternoon nap · Protocol
• A
  Measured function

  Exercise dose: how much weekly activity, from minutes a week to daily steps

  Measured VO2max rises more with a larger weekly exercise amount, in inactive middle-aged and older adults · Protocol
• A
  Measured function

  Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation (NMES) after Knee Replacement

  Early quadriceps strength and mobility after total knee replacement, compared with usual care (dynamometer strength, timed up-and-go) · Device or therapy
• A
  Measured function

  Resistance training 2–3×/week

  Muscle size and strength, progressive overload · Protocol
• A
  Measured function

  VO₂max training (Zone 2 + intervals)

  VO2max, objectively measured · Protocol
• A
  Zone 2 aerobic training

  VO2max (cardiorespiratory fitness), an objective functional measure · Device or therapy
• B
  Measured function

  Beta-Alanine

  High-intensity exercise capacity · Supplement
• B
  Measured function

  Blood Flow Restriction Training

  Post-ACL reconstruction rehabilitation · Device or therapy
• B
  Measured function

  Concurrent training sequence: resistance before aerobic (same session)

  Lower-body dynamic strength (1RM) and maximal aerobic capacity (VO2max) under concurrent training · Protocol
• B
  Measured function

  Daytime napping (length and timing)

  Physical performance in athletes and physically active young men · Protocol
• B
  Measured function

  Ginkgo Biloba (EGb 761)

  Cognitive symptoms in mild to moderate dementia · Supplement
• B
  Measured function

  Melatonin

  Sleep onset timing in delayed sleep phase disorder · Supplement
• B
  Measured function

  Pneumatic Compression (sequential)

  Clinical lymphedema, limb volume reduction · Protocol
• B
  Measured function

  Pneumatic Lymphatic Compression

  Clinical lymphedema · Device or therapy
• B
  Measured function

  REHIT / Sprint Interval Training

  Cardiorespiratory fitness (measured VO2max) in inactive adults, REHIT protocol · Device or therapy
• B
  Measured function

  Vision and cataract surgery: eyesight, falls and glasses

  Measured eyesight, cataract surgery against waiting · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  Acetyl-L-Carnitine (ALCAR)

  Cognition in mild cognitive impairment and mild Alzheimer's disease, and diabetic neuropathy pain · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Aerobic exercise (Zone 2) 150 min/week

  The 150-minute weekly dose specifically, against other weekly volumes · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  Alpha-GPC (L-Alpha-Glycerylphosphorylcholine)

  Cognitive scores in diagnosed mild cognitive impairment, Alzheimer's disease or diabetes with cognitive decline · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Bacopa monnieri standardized extract 300–450 mg/day

  Objective cognitive test performance · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  Blood Flow Restriction Training

  Sarcopenia Age-related loss of muscle mass and strength. / older adults · Device or therapy
• C
  Measured function

  Choline

  Offspring cognitive and developmental measures · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Citicoline (CDP-Choline)

  Memory and behavior in chronic cerebral disorders of the elderly · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Cordyceps (Cordyceps sinensis / militaris)

  Exercise performance / VO2 surrogate measures · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Creatine 3–5 g/day

  Objectively measured memory and cognitive test performance · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  Creatine Monohydrate

  Memory and cognition in older adults · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Daytime napping (length and timing)

  A short nap combined with caffeine for afternoon sleepiness · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  Daytime napping (length and timing)

  Reducing habitual napping in older adults: verbal memory over one year · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  Ergothioneine (L-Ergothioneine)

  Verbal learning in mild cognitive impairment · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Evening warm bath or shower (40 to 42.5°C water)

  Sleep onset latency and sleep quality after a warm bath or shower one to two hours before bed · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  Exosome Therapy (extracellular vesicles)

  Hair growth in androgenetic alopecia, plant-derived exosome formulation (scalp injection) · Device or therapy
• C
  Measured function

  Ginkgo Biloba (EGb 761)

  Mild cognitive impairment · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Hearing aids for age-related hearing loss

  Speech understanding measured in a listening test, adults aged 55 to 79 with mild to moderate hearing loss · Device or therapy
• C
  Measured function

  Hearing aids with audiological counseling, for cognitive decline

  Cognitive decline over 3 years in older adults with hearing loss at higher risk of decline · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  HMB (Beta-Hydroxy Beta-Methylbutyrate)

  Muscle mass and handgrip strength in adults with diagnosed sarcopenia · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  HMB (Beta-Hydroxy Beta-Methylbutyrate)

  Muscle mass and strength in adults over 50 without sarcopenia · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Infrared Sauna

  Chronic heart failure (adjunct) · Device or therapy
• C
  Measured function

  L-Tyrosine

  Working memory and reaction measures during acute cold or combat stress · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Lion's Mane 3 g/day fruiting-body powder (as studied)

  A cognitive score (HDS-R) in mild cognitive impairment · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  Lion's Mane Mushroom

  Cognitive test scores in older adults with mild cognitive impairment · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Lithium (Low-Dose / Microdose)

  Cognitive decline in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Melatonin

  Sleep in adults with high blood pressure taking beta-blockers · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Melatonin

  Sleep onset latency and sleep quality (primary sleep disorders) · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Melatonin 0.3 to 0.5 mg (low dose), 30 to 60 minutes before bed

  Sleep onset and sleep efficiency at low doses (0.3 to 0.5 mg) · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  Mesenchymal stem cell therapy (intravenous, allogeneic laromestrocel)

  6-minute walk distance and physical function in diagnosed aging frailty · Device or therapy
• C
  Measured function

  Methylene Blue (low-dose)

  Memory retrieval and contextual memory after a single oral dose of about 260 mg · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Molecular Hydrogen (Inhaled)

  Sleep time and efficiency in people with sleep disorders · Device or therapy
• C
  Measured function

  Montmorency Tart Cherry

  Recovery of muscle strength after strenuous exercise · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Montmorency Tart Cherry

  Sleep quality and duration · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Morning bright light (light box or daylight) for sleep and the body clock

  Delayed sleep phase and late sleepers: sleep timing and daytime function · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  Morning bright light (light box or daylight) for sleep and the body clock

  Dementia in care facilities: nighttime sleep with morning bright light · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  Morning bright light (light box or daylight) for sleep and the body clock

  Insomnia: sleep measured by actigraphy, polysomnography and questionnaires · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  Morning bright light (light box or daylight) for sleep and the body clock

  Older adults without dementia: sleep with brighter morning or daytime indoor light · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  Morning bright light (light box or daylight) for sleep and the body clock

  Rotating-shift nurses: daytime sleepiness and reaction time with brief morning light · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  Morning bright light (light box or daylight) for sleep and the body clock

  Whole-day bright ceiling light in group care homes: cognitive decline and daily function · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  NR (Nicotinamide Riboside)

  Six-minute walk distance in peripheral artery disease · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Padma Basic (Tibetan multi-herb formula)

  Pain-free and maximum walking distance in intermittent claudication · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Phosphatidylserine (PS)

  Memory and cognition in older adults, bovine-cortex phosphatidylserine (no longer sold) · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Power (high-velocity) resistance training versus traditional strength training

  Physical function in adults 60 and over, power versus traditional strength training · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  PQQ (Pyrroloquinoline Quinone)

  Cognitive test performance in middle-aged and older adults · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Purpose in life: meaning-centered therapy, purpose programs and volunteering

  Physical activity, physical tests and thinking tests, structured volunteering for older adults · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  Red Light / Near-Infrared (630–850nm)

  Diabetic foot ulcer healing · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  Red Light / Near-Infrared (630–850nm)

  Venous leg ulcer healing · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  Sermorelin (GHRH 1-29)

  Cognition in older adults · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Sleep duration & quality (as longevity target)

  Risky driving, measured by in-car sensors, after sleep extension education in young drivers · Device or therapy
• C
  Measured function

  Sleep duration & quality (as longevity target)

  Sustained attention and reaction time, measured by test, after sleep extension in healthy young adults · Device or therapy
• C
  Measured function

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  Cognition and memory in older adults · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  Grass pollen allergic rhinitis · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Sun and skin: daily sunscreen, sun protection and oral nicotinamide

  Visible skin aging (photoaging), daily sunscreen · Protocol
• C
  Measured function

  Taurine

  Acute exercise performance (3km running time) · Supplement
• C
  Measured function

  Transcranial Photobiomodulation

  Cognition (limited human evidence) · Device or therapy
• C
  Measured function

  Transcutaneous Vagus Nerve Stimulation

  Cognition in mild cognitive impairment · Device or therapy
• C
  Measured function

  Transcutaneous Vagus Nerve Stimulation

  Cognitive test performance in healthy adults and mixed clinical samples · Device or therapy
• C
  Measured function

  Urolithin A

  Muscle endurance, strength and mitochondrial markers, where the pre-registered primary endpoints The one outcome a trial names in advance as its main test. Results on other outcomes carry less weight. were missed · Supplement

Measured on symptoms

Pain, mood, sleep quality: rated by a blinded clinician or reported by the person. A 3 · B 22 · C 63.

• A
  Blinded clinician rating

  Photobiomodulation to Prevent Oral Mucositis

  Severe (grade 3 to 4) oral mucositis during head and neck radiotherapy or chemoradiation and stem cell transplant, graded by blinded clinicians · Device or therapy
• A
  Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) for Depression

  Response and remission in treatment-resistant major depression on blinded clinician-rated scales (HAM-D, MADRS) · Device or therapy
• A
  Blinded clinician rating

  Transcutaneous Vagus Nerve Stimulation

  Postoperative cognitive dysfunction in older adults having major surgery · Device or therapy
• B
  Ashwagandha standardized root extract 300 mg twice daily

  Sleep in adults with insomnia and anxiety, measured by a wrist sleep monitor (actigraphy) in one trial and self-reported in the pooled trials · Protocol
• B
  Self-report

  Boswellia serrata

  Osteoarthritis pain and function · Supplement
• B
  Bright Light Therapy for Depression

  Depression scores, response and remission in winter seasonal depression and non-seasonal major depression on clinician-rated scales (SIGH-SAD, HAM-D, MADRS) · Device or therapy
• B
  Self-report

  Cold Water Immersion

  Muscle soreness and short-term recovery after strenuous exercise · Device or therapy
• B
  Self-report

  Collagen Peptides

  Activity-related joint pain in athletes and active adults · Supplement
• B
  Self-report

  CPAP for obstructive sleep apnea

  Self-rated daytime sleepiness (Epworth scale) in adults with obstructive sleep apnea · Device or therapy
• B
  Custom Foot Orthotics

  Chronic low back pain and disability, short term (self-report) · Device or therapy
• B
  Hearing aids for age-related hearing loss

  Self-rated hearing-related quality of life and everyday communication, adults with mild to moderate hearing loss · Device or therapy
• B
  HRV Biofeedback

  Self-reported anxiety, HRV biofeedback (resonance breathing) training · Device or therapy
• B
  Self-report

  Ketogenic diet (very-low-carbohydrate)

  Seizure frequency in children and adolescents with drug-resistant epilepsy · Protocol
• B
  MBSR (Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction) 8-week program

  Self-reported anxiety, depression and pain · Protocol
• B
  Self-report

  Melatonin

  Jet lag symptoms after flights across five or more time zones · Supplement
• B
  Mindfulness meditation for sleep (weekly group course with daily home practice)

  Self-reported sleep quality · Protocol
• B
  Self-report

  Mobility and fall-prevention protocols

  Falls in older adults · Protocol
• B
  Self-report

  Myofunctional therapy (mouth and throat exercises) for obstructive sleep apnea

  Daytime sleepiness and apnea-hypopnea index after two to four months of daily mouth and throat exercises · Protocol
• B
  Self-report

  Photobiomodulation (musculoskeletal)

  Chronic neck pain and chronic tendinopathy pain, low-level laser therapy · Device or therapy
• B
  Purpose in life: meaning-centered therapy, purpose programs and volunteering

  Self-reported meaning, purpose and distress, meaning-centered therapy (mostly people with cancer) · Protocol
• B
  RIMSO-50 (Dimethyl Sulfoxide Bladder Instillation)

  Self-reported symptoms of interstitial cystitis · Longevity drug
• B
  Saffron (Crocus sativus)

  Depression symptom scales (HAM-D and similar) · Supplement
• B
  Self-report

  Sleep restriction treatment (CBT-I)

  Insomnia: sleep onset, time awake after sleep onset and sleep efficiency, from sleep diaries · Protocol
• B
  Self-report

  Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

  Common-cold duration with daily supplementation · Supplement
• B
  Self-report

  Zinc

  Common-cold duration in adults · Supplement
• C
  Blinded clinician rating

  5-HTP (5-Hydroxytryptophan)

  Depressive symptoms · Supplement
• C
  Self-report

  Alpha Lipoic Acid (ALA / R-ALA)

  Symptoms of diabetic peripheral neuropathy · Supplement
• C
  Self-report

  Astaxanthin

  Screen-related eye strain in children · Supplement
• C
  Audiovisual / Brainwave Entrainment

  Self-reported anxiety, sleep and pain; cognitive test scores · Device or therapy
• C
  Self-report

  Benfotiamine

  Diabetic neuropathy measures · Supplement
• C
  Self-report

  Blood Flow Restriction Training

  Knee osteoarthritis · Device or therapy
• C
  Self-report

  Boswellia + Celery Seed Extract (RestorCel)

  Knee osteoarthritis pain and stiffness (WOMAC, VAS) · Supplement
• C
  Self-report

  Chondroitin Sulfate

  Knee osteoarthritis pain and function, with glucosamine · Supplement
• C
  Self-report

  Chondroitin Sulfate

  Osteoarthritis pain and function, chondroitin as generally sold · Supplement
• C
  Self-report

  Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10)

  Statin-associated muscle symptoms · Supplement
• C
  Cold Water Immersion

  Sickness absence from work (self-reported) · Device or therapy
• C
  Self-report

  Creatine Monohydrate

  Major depressive disorder, as an adjunct to SSRI treatment · Supplement
• C
  Self-report

  Curcumin (Turmeric Extract)

  Knee osteoarthritis pain and function · Supplement
• C
  Self-report

  DMSO (Dimethyl Sulfoxide)

  Acute shoulder or elbow tendon pain, gel applied to the skin · Supplement
• C
  Self-report

  DMSO (Dimethyl Sulfoxide)

  Complex regional pain syndrome type I, cream applied to the skin · Supplement
• C
  Self-report

  DMSO (Dimethyl Sulfoxide)

  Knee osteoarthritis pain, gel applied to the skin · Supplement
• C
  Extracorporeal Shockwave Therapy (ESWT)

  Chronic plantar heel pain (plantar fasciitis), self-report · Device or therapy
• C
  Glucosamine Sulfate

  Knee osteoarthritis joint-space narrowing and symptoms · Supplement
• C
  Self-report

  Glycine

  Next-day fatigue after experimental sleep restriction in healthy volunteers · Supplement
• C
  Self-report

  HRV Biofeedback

  Perceived stress · Device or therapy
• C
  Self-report

  Hyaluronic Acid (Oral)

  Knee symptoms in adults with knee osteoarthritis or knee discomfort · Supplement
• C
  Self-report

  Infrared Sauna

  Physical complaints and appetite in mild depression (inpatients) · Device or therapy
• C
  L-Theanine 200 mg/day

  Self-reported sleep quality · Protocol
• C
  Self-report

  Lactoferrin

  Respiratory and systemic symptom scores in healthy adults · Supplement
• C
  Blinded clinician rating

  Low-Dose Naltrexone (LDN)

  Active Crohn's disease, induction of response or remission · Longevity drug
• C
  Self-report

  Low-Dose Naltrexone (LDN)

  Fibromyalgia pain · Longevity drug
• C
  Self-report

  Magnesium

  Sleep quality in primary insomnia (older adults) · Supplement
• C
  Magnesium bisglycinate 250 mg elemental at bedtime

  Self-reported insomnia severity in adults with poor sleep · Protocol
• C
  Blinded clinician rating

  Melatonin

  Prevention of delirium after cardiac surgery · Supplement
• C
  Blinded clinician rating

  Melatonin

  Prevention of delirium in older hospitalized/medical-ward patients · Supplement
• C
  Blinded clinician rating

  Molecular Hydrogen (Inhaled)

  Delirium after noncardiac surgery in adults aged 65 and over · Device or therapy
• C
  Self-report

  Molecular Hydrogen (Inhaled)

  Symptom score during acute exacerbation of COPD, as an adjunct to oxygen · Device or therapy
• C
  Blinded clinician rating

  NAC (N-Acetyl Cysteine)

  Symptoms in schizophrenia, as an adjunct to antipsychotic treatment · Supplement
• C
  Self-report

  Panax Ginseng

  Erectile function in mild to moderate erectile dysfunction, Korean red ginseng · Supplement
• C
  PEMF (Pulsed Electromagnetic Field) for osteoarthritis symptoms

  Self-reported osteoarthritis pain and function · Protocol
• C
  Self-report

  Photobiomodulation (musculoskeletal)

  Nonspecific low back pain, low-level laser therapy · Device or therapy
• C
  Self-report

  Pneumatic Compression (sequential)

  Exercise recovery / muscle soreness · Protocol
• C
  Blinded clinician rating

  Probiotics

  Upper respiratory infections in healthy adults (Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus CRL 1505 only) · Supplement
• C
  Pulsed Electromagnetic Field (PEMF)

  Knee osteoarthritis pain, self-reported, short term · Device or therapy
• C
  Purpose in life: meaning-centered therapy, purpose programs and volunteering

  Self-reported meaning and purpose, programs for older adults without serious illness · Protocol
• C
  Self-report

  Red Light / Near-Infrared (630–850nm)

  Knee osteoarthritis pain · Protocol
• C
  Self-report

  Retatrutide

  Knee osteoarthritis pain in adults with obesity · Longevity drug
• C
  Self-report

  Rhodiola Rosea

  Fatigue, by test-based fatigue indices and questionnaires · Supplement
• C
  Blinded clinician rating

  SAM-e (S-adenosyl-L-methionine)

  Major depressive disorder, SAM-e as monotherapy · Supplement
• C
  Sleep duration & quality (as longevity target)

  Depressive symptoms and sleep problems, self-reported, after gradual sleep extension with sleep advice in adolescents · Device or therapy
• C
  Self-report

  Social connection programs for loneliness in older adults

  Self-rated loneliness in older adults · Protocol
• C
  Self-report

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  ADHD symptoms in children, added to methylphenidate · Supplement
• C
  Blinded clinician rating

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  Behavior scores in autism spectrum disorder · Supplement
• C
  Blinded clinician rating

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  Depression after cardiac procedures · Supplement
• C
  Blinded clinician rating

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  Negative symptoms of schizophrenia, added to antipsychotic treatment · Supplement
• C
  Self-report

  Therapeutic Ultrasound

  Temporomandibular disorder pain (mixed: pooled analysis favorable, sham-controlled trials null) · Device or therapy
• C
  Self-report

  Traditional Finnish Sauna (dry sauna)

  Chronic tension-type headache pain · Device or therapy
• C
  Blinded clinician rating

  Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation

  Depressive symptoms in major depression, clinic-administered · Device or therapy
• C
  Blinded clinician rating

  Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation

  Depressive symptoms in major depression, home-based · Device or therapy
• C
  Self-report

  Vision and cataract surgery: eyesight, falls and glasses

  Falls, expedited first-eye cataract surgery in women over 70 · Protocol
• C
  Self-report

  Vision and cataract surgery: eyesight, falls and glasses

  Falls, home safety program for people aged 75 and older with severe visual impairment · Protocol
• C
  Self-report

  Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

  New gout diagnoses · Supplement
• C
  Self-report

  Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

  Preventing colds during heavy physical stress · Supplement
• C
  Blinded clinician rating

  Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

  Preventing complex regional pain syndrome after a wrist fracture · Supplement
• C
  Self-report

  Vitamin D3

  Fall prevention (older adults) · Supplement
• C
  Self-report

  WGP Beta-1,3/1,6-D-Glucan

  Incidence and duration of upper respiratory tract infections · Supplement
• C
  Self-report

  Zinc

  Common-cold duration in children · Supplement
• C
  Blinded clinician rating

  Zinc

  Slowing progression to advanced age-related macular degeneration in people at high risk (zinc 80 mg with copper) · Supplement

Measured only on a blood marker or other surrogate

A lab value or scan moved. Whether the people who took it lived longer or better was not measured. A 0 · B 43 · C 94.

• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Adequate dietary protein (1.2 to 1.6 g/kg/day)

  Lean (fat-free) mass during resistance training, healthy adults · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Aged garlic extract (480 mg/day for blood pressure; 2.4 g/day in plaque trials)

  Blood pressure in people with hypertension · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Alcohol reduction

  Blood pressure in people drinking more than two drinks a day · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Amla (Indian Gooseberry, Emblica officinalis)

  Lipid profile (LDL, triglycerides) · Supplement
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Ashwagandha (standardized root extract)

  Cortisol and stress or anxiety scores in stressed adults · Supplement
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Avoiding ultra-processed food

  Short-term energy intake and body weight · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Berberine 1.0 to 1.2 g/day (with meals)

  HbA1c A blood test that reflects average blood sugar over the previous two to three months. and LDL cholesterol in type 2 diabetes · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Berberine HCl

  HbA1c, fasting glucose and LDL cholesterol in type 2 diabetes and dyslipidemia · Supplement
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Cinnamon (Cassia / Ceylon)

  Fasting glucose and HbA1c · Supplement
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  CPAP for obstructive sleep apnea

  Blood pressure in adults with obstructive sleep apnea · Device or therapy
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  DASH dietary pattern

  Systolic and diastolic blood pressure (DASH, DASH-Sodium) · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  EGCG (Epigallocatechin Gallate / Green Tea Extract)

  LDL cholesterol · Supplement
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Fasting-mimicking diet (FMD, 5-day cycles)

  Blood pressure against an unrestricted diet, adults without diabetes · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum)

  Glycemic markers (blood sugar) · Supplement
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Home blood pressure monitoring

  Blood pressure reduction (validated surrogate) · Device or therapy
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Hyaluronic Acid (Oral)

  Skin hydration, elasticity and wrinkle depth in adults · Supplement
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Hypoglossal nerve stimulation for obstructive sleep apnea

  Apnea-hypopnea index and Epworth sleepiness in implanted adults with moderate to severe sleep apnea who cannot use CPAP · Device or therapy
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Influenza vaccination (yearly flu shot), for older adults

  Influenza in adults aged 60 and older, standard-dose vaccine against placebo · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Inositol (Myo-inositol)

  PCOS metabolic and reproductive measures · Supplement
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Inspiratory Muscle Training

  Resting systolic blood pressure, high-resistance inspiratory muscle strength training · Device or therapy
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Morning bright light (light box or daylight) for sleep and the body clock

  Body clock timing (melatonin onset) moved earlier, healthy adults · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Nattokinase

  Resting blood pressure (systolic and diastolic) · Supplement
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Oat beta-glucan (3 g/day or more) for LDL-C

  LDL cholesterol · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Oral appliance (mandibular advancement) for obstructive sleep apnea

  Apnea severity, daytime sleepiness and blood pressure against inactive control and against CPAP · Device or therapy
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Plant sterols or stanols 1.6 to 2 g/day

  LDL cholesterol · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Psyllium husk (10 to 15 g/day) for LDL-C

  Total and LDL cholesterol · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Quitting smoking: programs and medicines

  Not smoking at 6 months or longer, cytisine · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Quitting smoking: programs and medicines

  Not smoking at 6 months or longer, nicotine e-cigarettes against nicotine replacement · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Quitting smoking: programs and medicines

  Not smoking at 6 months or longer, nicotine replacement · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Quitting smoking: programs and medicines

  Not smoking at 6 months or longer, varenicline · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Resistance training 2–3×/week

  Glycemic control in type 2 diabetes · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Resistance training 2–3×/week

  Resting blood pressure · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Retatrutide

  Apnea-hypopnea index in adults with obesity and moderate to severe obstructive sleep apnea · Longevity drug
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Retatrutide

  Body weight in adults with obesity · Longevity drug
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Retatrutide

  HbA1c in adults with type 2 diabetes · Longevity drug
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Seed oils: linoleic-acid vegetable oils in place of saturated fat

  LDL and total cholesterol when linoleic-acid oils replace saturated fat · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Sodium reduction to under 2,300 mg/day

  Systolic and diastolic blood pressure (Cochrane meta-analysis A study that pools the numbers from several trials into one combined estimate.) · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Sun and skin: daily sunscreen, sun protection and oral nicotinamide

  Precancerous skin spots (actinic or solar keratoses), daily sunscreen · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Teeth and gums: periodontal treatment and daily oral hygiene

  HbA1c, scaling and root planing in people with diabetes and periodontitis · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Teeth and gums: periodontal treatment and daily oral hygiene

  Plaque and gum inflammation, powered against manual toothbrush · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Tirzepatide

  Apnea-hypopnea index in adults with obesity and moderate to severe obstructive sleep apnea · Longevity drug
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Whole-food plant-based diet

  HbA1c in adults with type 2 diabetes · Protocol
• B
  Surrogate biomarker

  Whole-food plant-based diet

  LDL cholesterol compared with a typical omnivorous diet · Protocol
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  40Hz Gamma Sensory Stimulation

  Structural brain change; cognition unestablished · Device or therapy
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Akkermansia muciniphila

  Weight regain after diet-induced weight loss, adults with overweight or obesity · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Alpha-Lipoic Acid (racemic) 300–600 mg/day

  Glucose and insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes · Protocol
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Amla (Indian Gooseberry, Emblica officinalis)

  Glycemic control (fasting glucose, HbA1c) · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Amla (Indian Gooseberry, Emblica officinalis)

  Systemic inflammation (CRP) and endothelial function · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Astaxanthin

  Blood markers of oxidative stress · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Astaxanthin

  Cholesterol, blood pressure and arterial stiffness · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Astaxanthin

  Muscle damage markers after exercise · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Astaxanthin

  Skin moisture and elasticity · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Astaxanthin

  Skin protection from ultraviolet light · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Astaxanthin

  Wrinkle depth · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Beetroot / Dietary Nitrate

  Blood pressure in hypertension · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Bitter Melon (Momordica charantia)

  Glycemic markers · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Bovine Colostrum

  Intestinal permeability / immune measures · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Caloric restriction (sustained ~25%)

  Metabolic markers and pace of aging in healthy non-obese adults · Protocol
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Carnosine

  Glycemic markers in prediabetes or type 2 diabetes · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Chromium (Picolinate)

  Glycemic markers · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Cold Water Immersion

  Heart rate variability in the hour after immersion · Device or therapy
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Collagen Peptides

  Skin hydration, elasticity and wrinkles in adults · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Curcumin (Turmeric Extract)

  Systemic inflammatory markers (hs-CRP High-sensitivity C-reactive protein, a blood marker of low-grade inflammation., IL-6) · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  DIM (Diindolylmethane)

  Hormone-metabolism / tissue biomarkers A measurable sign in the body, such as a blood test value, used to track a condition or the effect of a treatment. · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Exercise dose: how much weekly activity, from minutes a week to daily steps

  Blood lipoproteins with a larger weekly exercise amount, in overweight adults with mild dyslipidemia · Protocol
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Exercise dose: how much weekly activity, from minutes a week to daily steps

  Body weight and fat mass with a larger weekly exercise amount, without dieting · Protocol
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Exogenous Ketones (Ketone Esters and Salts)

  Blood glucose after a meal or glucose drink · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Exogenous Ketones (Ketone Esters and Salts)

  Cardiac output and filling pressures in heart failure · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Exosome Therapy (extracellular vesicles)

  Facial skin quality (topical, after microneedling or RF) · Device or therapy
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Fasting-mimicking diet (FMD, 5-day cycles)

  Glycemic management in type 2 diabetes on metformin or diet alone · Protocol
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Fasting-mimicking diet (FMD, 5-day cycles)

  HbA1c and IGF-1 against an unrestricted diet, adults without diabetes · Protocol
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT)

  Insulin sensitivity and metabolic markers in metabolic syndrome and obesity · Protocol
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Fucoidan

  Glycated serum protein, inflammatory markers and vaccine antibody response · Supplement
• C
  GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

  Sleep quality, mood and heart-rate variability (self-report and surrogate) · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Glutathione (Oral)

  Glutathione-status and oxidative-stress markers (mixed small trials) · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  GlyNAC (Glycine + N-Acetylcysteine)

  Glutathione, oxidative stress and aging markers in older adults (originating group's trial) · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Gymnema sylvestre

  Glycemic markers in impaired glucose tolerance, metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Hesperidin

  Inflammatory and endothelial markers (CRP, VCAM-1) · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Hyperbaric Oxygen (HBOT) · 60 sessions at 2.0 ATA

  Telomere length, senescent T cells and cognitive measures in healthy older adults · Protocol
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy

  2.0 ATA or higher, 100% oxygen by mask or hood · Device or therapy
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Hypoglossal nerve stimulation for obstructive sleep apnea

  Blood pressure in implanted adults with obstructive sleep apnea · Device or therapy
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Infrared Sauna

  Vascular / oxidative-stress markers · Device or therapy
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Intermittent fasting (5:2 / alternate-day energy restriction)

  Weight and cardiometabolic markers, compared with daily calorie restriction · Protocol
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Isometric Handgrip Training

  Resting systolic blood pressure (surrogate, objective) · Device or therapy
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Ketogenic diet (very-low-carbohydrate)

  Longevity and cardiometabolic markers in adults · Protocol
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  L-Citrulline

  Blood pressure in adults · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Milk Thistle (Silymarin)

  Liver enzymes and NAFLD/NASH markers · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  MitoQ (Mitoquinone Mesylate)

  Brachial artery flow-mediated dilation in older adults · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Molecular Hydrogen (Inhaled)

  Brain swelling after glioma surgery · Device or therapy
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Molecular Hydrogen (Inhaled)

  Liver fat in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease · Device or therapy
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Molecular Hydrogen Water

  Total and LDL cholesterol in adults with overweight, obesity or metabolic disorders · Device or therapy
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Multi-domain diet and lifestyle program with supplements (8 weeks, as studied)

  DNA methylation age, an epigenetic clock A test that estimates biological age from chemical marks on DNA (DNA methylation). · Protocol
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Nasal valve (nasal EPAP) for obstructive sleep apnea

  Apnea-hypopnea index and Epworth sleepiness in obstructive sleep apnea · Device or therapy
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  NMN (Nicotinamide Mononucleotide)

  Blood NAD+ Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, a molecule cells use in energy metabolism. Its level falls with age in some tissues. concentration in healthy middle-aged adults · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  NMN (Nicotinamide Mononucleotide)

  Muscle insulin sensitivity in prediabetic postmenopausal women · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  NMN 250–500 mg/day

  Insulin sensitivity and blood NAD · Protocol
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  NR (Nicotinamide Riboside)

  Blood NAD+ concentration in healthy and clinical adults · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Omega-3. High-dose EPA (icosapent ethyl, 4 g)

  DNA methylation clocks of biological aging in adults 70 and older · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Pentadecanoic Acid (C15:0, fatty15)

  LDL cholesterol and liver enzymes (surrogate) · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Positional therapy for position-dependent sleep apnea

  Apnea-hypopnea index and daytime sleepiness in position-dependent obstructive sleep apnea · Device or therapy
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Probiotics

  Inflammatory markers in type 2 diabetes · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Pterostilbene

  Blood pressure in adults with raised cholesterol · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Quercetin

  Blood pressure at 500 mg/day or more · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Red Light / Near-Infrared (630–850nm)

  Skin aging (wrinkles, complexion) · Protocol
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  REHIT / Sprint Interval Training

  Blood pressure · Device or therapy
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  REHIT / Sprint Interval Training

  Insulin sensitivity and glucose control · Device or therapy
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Reishi (Ganoderma lucidum)

  Immune cell measures as an adjunct to cancer treatment · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Resveratrol (Trans-Resveratrol)

  Metabolic markers in obese men · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Selenium (Selenomethionine)

  Autoimmune thyroiditis (TPO antibodies) · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Sermorelin (GHRH 1-29)

  Growth hormone and IGF-1 response in older adults · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Serrapeptase (Serratiopeptidase)

  Swelling after oral or sinus surgery · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Sleep duration & quality (as longevity target)

  Blood pressure, insulin sensitivity and glucose after behavioral sleep extension in habitual short sleepers · Device or therapy
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Sleep duration & quality (as longevity target)

  Energy intake and body weight after sleep extension in adults with overweight who sleep under 6.5 hours · Device or therapy
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  Blood inflammation markers · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  Exercise recovery, muscle damage markers and performance · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  Glucose control and insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  Helicobacter pylori colonization markers · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  Liver enzymes in fatty liver or high-normal liver tests · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  Nasal response to live attenuated influenza virus · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  Tissue markers of cancer risk in biopsy and presurgical trials (lung, breast, prostate) · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  Urinary excretion of airborne pollutants (benzene, acrolein, crotonaldehyde conjugates) · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Sun and skin: daily sunscreen, sun protection and oral nicotinamide

  New moles (nevi) in children, sunscreen or sun-protective clothing · Protocol
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Taurine

  Endothelial and inflammatory markers in type 2 diabetes · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Taurine

  Glycemic control in type 2 diabetes · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Teeth and gums: periodontal treatment and daily oral hygiene

  Blood pressure and artery function, intensive periodontal treatment · Protocol
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Teeth and gums: periodontal treatment and daily oral hygiene

  Gum inflammation, flossing and interdental cleaning added to toothbrushing · Protocol
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Therapeutic plasma exchange (plasmapheresis for aging)

  Epigenetic clocks and circulating biomarkers of aging · Device or therapy
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Time-restricted eating (early, 6 to 10 hour window)

  Weight and metabolic markers with calories held equal · Protocol
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  TMG (Trimethylglycine / Betaine)

  Plasma homocysteine An amino acid in the blood that rises when vitamin B12, folate or B6 are low. · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Tongkat Ali (Eurycoma longifolia)

  Total testosterone in men with low testosterone · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Traditional Finnish Sauna (dry sauna)

  Blood pressure and fitness when sauna follows regular exercise · Device or therapy
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

  Blood pressure · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Vitamin D3

  Progression from prediabetes to type 2 diabetes · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Vitamin D3 2,000–4,000 IU + K2 MK-7 100 mcg

  Bone loss in postmenopausal women, measured for the MK-7 component alone · Protocol
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Vitamin K2 (MK-7 / Menaquinone-7)

  Arterial stiffness and coronary artery calcification · Supplement
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Weekly vigorous exercise volume compressed into one session (weekend warrior pattern)

  Fat mass by DXA (primary) and maximal aerobic capacity, VO2max (secondary), under one weekly session against control · Protocol
• C
  Surrogate biomarker

  Whole Body Vibration

  Bone mineral density (surrogate, objective) · Device or therapy

Graded D, kept apart

Not yet tested in a human trial, or tested and found to do nothing or harm, on the outcome named. Listed in the same order of outcome. 160 in all.

• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, harm found

  2-HOBA (2-Hydroxybenzylamine)

  Atrial fibrillation recurrence after catheter ablation · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  APOE genotype testing (learning your APOE result)

  Dementia, heart disease and death after learning the APOE result · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, harm found

  Aspirin (low-dose, primary prevention in healthy older adults)

  Disability-free survival in healthy adults aged 70 and over · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, harm found

  Beta-Carotene (supplemental)

  · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  Blood Flow Restriction Training

  Longevity / mortality · Device or therapy
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  C60 (Carbon-60 / Buckminsterfullerene)

  · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  CPAP for obstructive sleep apnea

  Heart attack, stroke and cardiovascular death in adults with moderate to severe obstructive sleep apnea, mostly without daytime sleepiness · Device or therapy
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  DMSO (Dimethyl Sulfoxide)

  Longevity, healthspan or mortality, taken by mouth · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  DMSO (Dimethyl Sulfoxide)

  Pressure ulcer prevention, massaged into the skin · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Exercise dose: how much weekly activity, from minutes a week to daily steps

  Death from any cause, five years of supervised exercise on top of guideline-level activity, adults aged 70 to 77 · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  Exosome Therapy (extracellular vesicles)

  Systemic or intravenous administration for longevity, healthspan or anti-aging · Device or therapy
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT)

  Aging, frailty and longevity in older or healthy adults · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  Fisetin

  · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Folic Acid (supplemental, 1 mg/day)

  Major cardiovascular events in people with vascular disease (folic acid with vitamins B6 and B12) · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  General health checks (multi-organ screening of asymptomatic adults)

  All-cause, cardiovascular and cancer mortality in adults unselected for disease · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Ginkgo Biloba (EGb 761)

  Dementia prevention in older adults · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, harm found

  Hormone replacement therapy (combined estrogen + progestin, primary prevention)

  Chronic disease in healthy postmenopausal women, including breast cancer, stroke and blood clots · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Influenza vaccination (yearly flu shot), for older adults

  Death from any cause, standard-dose vaccine against placebo, adults aged 60 and older · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Influenza vaccination (yearly flu shot), for older adults

  Hospitalization for influenza or pneumonia, high-dose against standard-dose vaccine, adults aged 65 and older · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Lactoferrin

  Prevention of respiratory infection in adults · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Lipids: lowering LDL cholesterol, and the contrast with raising HDL or lowering triglycerides

  Heart attack, stroke and cardiovascular death, lowering triglycerides with a fibrate added to a statin · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, harm found

  Lipids: lowering LDL cholesterol, and the contrast with raising HDL or lowering triglycerides

  Heart attack, stroke and death, raising HDL cholesterol with CETP inhibitors, niacin or apolipoprotein A1 infusion · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  Magnesium

  Cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Mammography screening for breast cancer

  Breast cancer deaths, women aged 39 to 49 · Device or therapy
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Mammography screening for breast cancer

  Death from any cause, women invited to mammography screening · Device or therapy
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Molecular Hydrogen (Inhaled)

  Good neurological outcome after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest · Device or therapy
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Molecular Hydrogen Water

  Clinical worsening in outpatients with mild to moderate COVID-19 · Device or therapy
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  NAD+ (Direct Oral Supplementation)

  · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Niacin (extended-release, for lipids)

  · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  NMN (Nicotinamide Mononucleotide)

  Longevity, healthspan or mortality · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Omega-3. High-dose EPA (icosapent ethyl, 4 g)

  Primary prevention in general-risk adults (mixed EPA+DHA) · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  Piperlongumine

  · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Pneumococcal vaccination (pneumonia vaccines), for older adults

  Pneumonia from any cause and death, 23-valent polysaccharide vaccine, adults in high-income countries · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Pneumococcal vaccination (pneumonia vaccines), for older adults

  Pneumonia from any cause, 13-valent conjugate vaccine, adults aged 65 and older · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  Procyanidin C1 (PCC1)

  · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  PSA screening for prostate cancer

  Death from any cause, men invited to PSA screening · Device or therapy
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  Purpose in life: meaning-centered therapy, purpose programs and volunteering

  Death, dementia and heart disease · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  Quercetin

  Senolytic A compound intended to clear senescent cells: older cells that have stopped dividing but remain in tissue. use for aging outcomes, quercetin alone · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Regular blood donation (iron reduction)

  All-cause death; death, nonfatal heart attack or stroke · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Seed oils: linoleic-acid vegetable oils in place of saturated fat

  All-cause mortality when linoleic-acid oils replace saturated fat · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Selenium (Selenomethionine)

  Long-term supplementation in already-replete adults · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  Sermorelin (GHRH 1-29)

  Mortality, frailty and longevity · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  Serrapeptase (Serratiopeptidase)

  Systemic inflammation, cardiovascular or longevity use · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  Shingles vaccination (recombinant zoster vaccine), for shingles and dementia

  Dementia in older adults · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Sigmoidoscopy and colonoscopy screening for colorectal cancer

  Colorectal cancer deaths and death from any cause, an invitation to screening colonoscopy, adults aged 55 to 64 · Device or therapy
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  Spermidine

  Aging, longevity, mortality · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Statins (simvastatin, pravastatin, atorvastatin, rosuvastatin)

  Disability-free survival (living without dementia or persistent physical disability) in adults aged 70 and over without cardiovascular disease · Longevity drug
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  Stool-based colorectal screening (gFOBT and FIT)

  Colorectal cancer mortality, fecal immunochemical test (FIT) specifically · Device or therapy
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  Helicobacter pylori eradication, added to standard triple therapy · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Sun and skin: daily sunscreen, sun protection and oral nicotinamide

  Basal cell carcinoma, daily sunscreen · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  Sun and skin: daily sunscreen, sun protection and oral nicotinamide

  Behavioral sun-protection counseling, skin cancer incidence · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Sun and skin: daily sunscreen, sun protection and oral nicotinamide

  Oral nicotinamide, skin cancer in organ transplant recipients · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  Taurine

  Aging, longevity, mortality · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Teeth and gums: periodontal treatment and daily oral hygiene

  Heart attack, stroke and death, periodontal treatment · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Teeth and gums: periodontal treatment and daily oral hygiene

  Preterm birth, periodontal treatment during pregnancy · Protocol
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

  Cancer prevention · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, harm found

  Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

  Intravenous high-dose vitamin C in sepsis · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, harm found

  Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

  Intravenous high-dose vitamin C in severe burns · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

  Major cardiovascular events · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Vitamin D3

  All-cause mortality (older adults not selected for vitamin D status) · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Vitamin D3

  Cancer prevention (already-replete adults) · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Vitamin D3

  Cardiovascular prevention (already-replete adults) · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Vitamin D3

  Deficiency correction & fracture risk (deficient or older adults) · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Vitamin D3

  Fracture prevention (already-replete adults) · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Tested, no benefit

  Vitamin E (supplemental alpha-tocopherol)

  Major cardiovascular events · Supplement
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  Whole-body MRI screening (asymptomatic adults)

  Cancer mortality or all-cause mortality in asymptomatic screened adults · Device or therapy
• D
  Hard clinical endpoint · Not yet tested

  Whole-food plant-based diet

  Heart attack, stroke, mortality and longevity · Protocol
• D
  Measured function · Tested, harm found

  APOE genotype testing (learning your APOE result)

  Drugs and supplements chosen because a person carries e4 · Protocol
• D
  Measured function · Not yet tested

  BPC-157 (Body Protection Compound 157)

  · Supplement
• D
  Measured function · Tested, harm found

  Cold Water Immersion

  Strength and muscle gains when used after resistance training sessions · Device or therapy
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  Exogenous Ketones (Ketone Esters and Salts)

  Endurance exercise performance · Supplement
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  Exogenous Ketones (Ketone Esters and Salts)

  Exercise capacity in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction · Supplement
• D
  Measured function · Not yet tested

  Exosome Therapy (extracellular vesicles)

  Hair growth, human stem-cell-derived exosomes (the products sold) · Device or therapy
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  Hearing aids with audiological counseling, for cognitive decline

  Cognition in people with Alzheimer's disease and hearing loss · Protocol
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  Hearing aids with audiological counseling, for cognitive decline

  Cognitive decline over 3 years in adults aged 70 to 84 with untreated hearing loss, overall · Protocol
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  HMB (Beta-Hydroxy Beta-Methylbutyrate)

  Strength and hypertrophy in resistance-trained young men · Supplement
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  L-Citrulline

  Aerobic and endurance exercise performance, free L-citrulline · Supplement
• D
  Measured function · Not yet tested

  Luteolin

  Olfactory recovery after COVID-19, luteolin alone · Supplement
• D
  Measured function · Tested, harm found

  Metformin (for longevity)

  Muscle and mitochondrial gains from exercise training in healthy older adults · Longevity drug
• D
  Measured function · Not yet tested

  Methylene Blue (low-dose)

  Daily low-dose methylene blue for memory or cognition · Supplement
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  MitoQ (Mitoquinone Mesylate)

  Endurance exercise performance and training adaptation · Supplement
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  MitoQ (Mitoquinone Mesylate)

  Physical function in healthy older adults · Supplement
• D
  Measured function · Not yet tested

  Morning bright light (light box or daylight) for sleep and the body clock

  Healthy adults: outdoor light within a fixed window after waking, for sleep, mood or energy · Protocol
• D
  Measured function · Tested, harm found

  Morning bright light (light box or daylight) for sleep and the body clock

  Older adults with memory impairment living at home: 30 minutes of bright light within 30 minutes of rising · Protocol
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  NR (Nicotinamide Riboside)

  Cognition in mild cognitive impairment · Supplement
• D
  Measured function · Tested, harm found

  NR (Nicotinamide Riboside)

  Early Parkinson disease · Supplement
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  Omega-3 DHA 1–2 g/day

  Cognitive function in older adults · Protocol
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  Phosphatidylserine (PS)

  Memory and cognition in older adults, soy-derived phosphatidylserine (the form sold) · Supplement
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  Phosphatidylserine 300 mg/day (soy-derived)

  Memory in older adults with memory complaints · Protocol
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  Pneumatic Lymphatic Compression

  Exercise recovery, objective function (jump, MVC) · Device or therapy
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  Rapamycin (Sirolimus)

  Visceral adiposity and physical function (chair-stand repetitions) in older adults · Longevity drug
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  Reducing anticholinergic drug burden

  Cognition, falls, quality of life and mortality · Protocol
• D
  Measured function · Tested, harm found

  Resveratrol (Trans-Resveratrol)

  Exercise training adaptations in older men (resveratrol added to training) · Supplement
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  Spermidine

  Memory in older adults with subjective cognitive decline · Supplement
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  Statins (simvastatin, pravastatin, atorvastatin, rosuvastatin)

  Preventing dementia and cognitive decline in older people · Longevity drug
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  Cognition in schizophrenia · Supplement
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  Outcome after subarachnoid hemorrhage (SFX-01, a stabilized sulforaphane drug) · Supplement
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  Vision and cataract surgery: eyesight, falls and glasses

  Cognitive test scores, cataract surgery in cognitively normal older adults · Protocol
• D
  Measured function · Tested, no benefit

  Vision and cataract surgery: eyesight, falls and glasses

  Eyesight, community vision screening of people aged 65 and older · Protocol
• D
  Self-report · Tested, no benefit

  5-HTP (5-Hydroxytryptophan)

  Fatigue in quiescent inflammatory bowel disease · Supplement
• D
  Self-report · Tested, no benefit

  APOE genotype testing (learning your APOE result)

  Health behavior and risk factors after learning the APOE result · Protocol
• D
  Self-report · Tested, no benefit

  Bromelain

  Osteoarthritis pain and inflammation markers, bromelain alone · Supplement
• D
  Self-report · Tested, no benefit

  Cold Water Immersion

  Mood · Device or therapy
• D
  Tested, no benefit

  EEG Neurofeedback

  ADHD symptoms in children and adolescents (self-report, blinding-sensitive) · Device or therapy
• D
  Self-report · Tested, no benefit

  Exogenous Ketones (Ketone Esters and Salts)

  Migraine prevention · Supplement
• D
  Self-report · Tested, no benefit

  Exosome Therapy (extracellular vesicles)

  Orthopedic / knee osteoarthritis / cartilage · Device or therapy
• D
  Self-report · Tested, no benefit

  Genetic testing to choose diet or supplements (nutrigenomic panels)

  Diet quality and health measures with advice tailored to genotype, compared with personalized advice that does not use genotype · Device or therapy
• D
  Self-report · Not yet tested

  Geranylgeraniol (GG)

  · Supplement
• D
  Self-report · Tested, no benefit

  Luteolin

  Symptom severity in Gulf War illness, luteolin alone · Supplement
• D
  Blinded clinician rating · Tested, no benefit

  Melatonin

  Prevention of delirium in the general intensive care unit · Supplement
• D
  Blinded clinician rating · Tested, no benefit

  Molecular Hydrogen (Inhaled)

  Motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease · Device or therapy
• D
  Blinded clinician rating · Tested, no benefit

  Molecular Hydrogen (Inhaled)

  Spasm control in infants with epileptic spasms, added to standard treatment · Device or therapy
• D
  Self-report · Tested, no benefit

  PectaSol Modified Citrus Pectin (MCP)

  Knee osteoarthritis symptoms · Supplement
• D
  Self-report · Tested, no benefit

  SAM-e (S-adenosyl-L-methionine)

  Knee or hip osteoarthritis, pain and function · Supplement
• D
  Blinded clinician rating · Tested, no benefit

  SAM-e (S-adenosyl-L-methionine)

  Major depressive disorder, SAM-e added to an antidepressant · Supplement
• D
  Self-report · Tested, no benefit

  Steam Inhalation (for colds and sinus symptoms)

  Chronic or recurrent sinus symptoms · Device or therapy
• D
  Self-report · Tested, no benefit

  Steam Inhalation (for colds and sinus symptoms)

  Common cold symptoms · Device or therapy
• D
  Blinded clinician rating · Tested, no benefit

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  Clinical status in hospitalized community-acquired pneumonia (SFX-01) · Supplement
• D
  Self-report · Tested, no benefit

  Traditional Finnish Sauna (dry sauna)

  Common cold symptoms, breathing hot sauna air during a cold · Device or therapy
• D
  Self-report · Tested, no benefit

  Vision and cataract surgery: eyesight, falls and glasses

  Falls, expedited second-eye cataract surgery in women over 70 · Protocol
• D
  Self-report · Tested, harm found

  Vision and cataract surgery: eyesight, falls and glasses

  Falls, eye examination with treatment of vision problems in frail older people · Protocol
• D
  Self-report · Tested, no benefit

  Vision and cataract surgery: eyesight, falls and glasses

  Falls, single-lens distance glasses for older multifocal wearers · Protocol
• D
  Self-report · Tested, no benefit

  Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

  Preventing colds in the general population · Supplement
• D
  Self-report · Tested, no benefit

  Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

  Shortening a cold by starting vitamin C after symptoms begin · Supplement
• D
  Self-report · Tested, no benefit

  Vitamin D3

  Prevention of depression in adults aged 50 and over · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Akkermansia muciniphila

  Insulin sensitivity and metabolic markers in overweight or insulin-resistant adults · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Not yet tested

  Apigenin

  · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Not yet tested

  Arterosil HP (Rhamnan Sulfate)

  · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Boron

  Bone and steroid-hormone markers · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Not yet tested

  Calcium Alpha-Ketoglutarate (Ca-AKG)

  · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Carnosine

  Musculoskeletal measures (strength, lean mass, bone) in prediabetes or type 2 diabetes · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Cold Water Immersion

  Lowering inflammation · Device or therapy
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Creatine Monohydrate

  Bone mineral density in postmenopausal women · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  DMSO (Dimethyl Sulfoxide)

  Finger ulcers in systemic sclerosis, applied to the skin · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Exogenous Ketones (Ketone Esters and Salts)

  Blood pressure · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  GlyNAC (Glycine + N-Acetylcysteine)

  Glutathione redox status in healthy older adults · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy

  1.3 to 1.5 ATA, concentrator air · Device or therapy
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Infrared Sauna

  Acute glycemic control, T2DM · Device or therapy
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Inspiratory Muscle Training

  Sleep apnea severity (apnea-hypopnea index) · Device or therapy
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Not yet tested

  Magnesium Glycinate 300–400 mg

  Insulin resistance · Protocol
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Not yet tested

  Magnesium Glycinate 300–400 mg elemental

  Blood pressure · Protocol
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Multi-cancer early detection blood test (cell-free DNA)

  Incidence of late-stage (III and IV) cancer at diagnosis, a stage-shift surrogate for cancer mortality · Device or therapy
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  NR (Nicotinamide Riboside)

  Insulin sensitivity in obese insulin-resistant men · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  PectaSol Modified Citrus Pectin (MCP)

  Collagen turnover and cardiac remodeling markers in hypertension with raised galectin-3 · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Not yet tested

  PectaSol Modified Citrus Pectin (MCP)

  PSA kinetics in non-metastatic biochemically relapsed prostate cancer · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, harm found

  Pterostilbene

  LDL cholesterol in adults enrolled for raised cholesterol · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Quercetin

  Blood lipids · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Quercetin

  Glycemic control in metabolic syndrome and related disorders · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Reishi (Ganoderma lucidum)

  Blood glucose, lipids and blood pressure in type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Not yet tested

  Sermorelin (GHRH 1-29)

  Body composition and lean mass in older adults · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Not yet tested

  Steam Room (steam bath, hammam)

  Any health outcome of regular steam room use, steam compared with no steam · Device or therapy
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  Airway inflammation and lung function (asthma, COPD, ozone exposure) · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  Blood pressure and endothelial function in hypertension · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  NRF2 target gene expression (the proposed mechanism) · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Sulforaphane (Broccoli Sprout Extract)

  PSA after radical prostatectomy for prostate cancer (biochemical recurrence) · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Traditional Finnish Sauna (dry sauna)

  Heart rate variability when sauna follows regular exercise · Device or therapy
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Traditional Finnish Sauna (dry sauna)

  Vascular function in stable coronary artery disease · Device or therapy
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Transcutaneous Vagus Nerve Stimulation

  Heart rate variability in healthy adults · Device or therapy
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Tested, no benefit

  Trehalose

  · Supplement
• D
  Surrogate biomarker · Not yet tested

  Vascanox HP (Nitric Oxide / Noxa24)

  · Supplement